Akan language
| Akan | |
|---|---|
| Ákán | |
| Native to | Ghana |
| Ethnicity | Akan |
| Speakers | L1: 8.9 million (2013)[1] L2: 1 million (no date)[1] |
| Dialects | |
| Latin | |
| Official status | |
Official language in | None Government-sponsored language of  Ghana |
| Regulated by | Akan Orthography Committee |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 | ak |
| ISO 639-2 | aka |
| ISO 639-3 | aka – inclusive codeIndividual codes: abr – Abronwss – Wasa |
| Glottolog | akan1251 Akanic |
_LOC_88692692.jpg) A map of Ghana's ethno-linguistic areas. Akan areas (light green) extend west about halfway into Côte d'Ivoire. | |
Akan (/əˈkæn/[2]) is the largest language of Ghana, and the principal native language of the Akan people, spoken over much of the southern half of Ghana.[3] About 80% of Ghana's population speak Akan as a first or second language,[3] and about 44% of Ghanaians are native speakers.[3][4] Akan is also spoken across the border in parts of Côte d'Ivoire.[3]
Three dialects were developed as literary standards with distinct orthographies: Asante and Akuapem, collectively known as Twi, and Fante.[5][6] Despite being mutually intelligible,[3][7] they were inaccessible in written form to speakers of the other standards until the Akan Orthography Committee (AOC)'s development of a common Akan orthography in 1978, based mainly on Akuapem dialect.[8] As the first Akan variety to be used for Bible translation, Akuapem had become the prestige dialect.[9]
With the Atlantic slave trade, Akan languages were introduced to the Caribbean and South America, notably in Suriname, spoken by the Ndyuka, and in Jamaica, spoken by the Jamaican Maroons, also known as the Coromantee.[3] The cultures of the descendants of escaped slaves in the interior of Suriname and the Maroons in Jamaica still retain Akan influences, including the Akan naming practice of naming children after the day of the week on which they are born, e.g. Akwasi/Kwasi for a boy or Akosua for a girl born on a Sunday. In Jamaica and Suriname, the Anansi spider stories are still well-known.[3][7]
History
[edit]In history, the Akans who live in Ghana migrated in successive waves between the 11th and 18th centuries. Others inhabit the eastern part of Côte d'Ivoire and parts of Togo.[10] They migrated from the north to occupy the forest and coastal areas in the south in the 13th century. The Akans have a strong oral history tradition of their past and they're also known in the art history world for symbolic artifacts of wood, metal and terracotta.[3] Their cultural ideas are expressed in stories and proverbs and also in designs such as symbols used in carvings and on clothes.[3] The cultural and historic nature of the Akans in Ghana makes it an area of research for various disciplines such as folklore, literary studies, linguistics, anthropology and history.[3]
Dialects
[edit]Akan is a dialect continuum that is closely related to the Bia languages, the other Central Tano languages spoken by the Akan people. The relationships of the major Akan dialects are as follows:[11][12]
| Akan | |
Brong and Wasa have limited mutual intelligibility with each other, and so are separate languages by that standard.[1] Neighboring Brong and Asante are mutually intelligible, though geographically more distant Brong and Fante are less so.[13][12]
Phonology
[edit]The Akan dialects contain extensive palatalization, vowel harmony, and tone terracing.
Consonants
[edit]Before front vowels, all Asante consonants are palatalized (or labio-palatalized), and the stops are to some extent affricated. The allophones of /n/ are quite complex. In the table below, palatalized allophones which involve more than minor phonetic palatalization are specified, in the context of the vowel /i/. These sounds do occur before other vowels, such as /a/, though in most cases not commonly.
In Asante, /ɡu/ followed by a vowel is pronounced /ɡʷ/, but in Akuapem it remains /ɡu/. The sequence /nh/ is pronounced [ŋŋ̊].
A word final /k/ can be heard as a glottal stop [ʔ]. There is also a nasalization of /h/ and of /j w/ as [h̃] and [j̃ w̃], when occurring before nasal vowels.
The transcriptions in the tables below are in the order /phonemic/, [phonetic]. Note that orthographic ⟨dw⟩ is ambiguous; in textbooks, ⟨dw⟩ = /ɡ/ may be distinguished from /dw/ with a diacritic: d̩w. Likewise, velar ⟨nw⟩ (ŋw) may be transcribed n̩w. Orthographic ⟨nu⟩ is palatalized [ɲᶣ].
| Labial | Alveolar | Dorsal | Labialized | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | plain | /m/ | /n/ | /nʷ/ | |
| geminated | /nː/ | /nːʷ/ | |||
| Stop | voiceless | /p/ | /t/ | /k/ | /kʷ/ |
| voiced | /b/ | /d/ | /g/ | /ɡʷ/ | |
| Fricative | /f/ | /s/ | /h/ | /hʷ/ | |
| Trill | /r/ | ||||
| Approximant | /l/ | /j/ | /w/ | ||
| Labial | Alveolar | Dorsal | Labialized | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phoneme | Allophones | Phoneme | Allophones | Phoneme | Allophones | |||
| Nasal | plain | /m/ | /n/ | [n~ŋ, ɲ, ɲĩ] | /nʷ/ | [ŋʷ, ɲᶣ] | ||
| geminated | /nː/ | [ŋː, ɲːĩ] | /nːʷ/ | [ɲːᶣ] | ||||
| Stop | voiceless | /p/ | /t/ | [t, tçi] | /k/ | [k, tɕ~cç] | /kʷ/ | [kʷ, tɕᶣi] |
| voiced | /b/ | /d/ | /g/ | [g, dʒ, dʑ~ɟʝ] | /ɡʷ/ | [ɡʷ, dʑᶣi] | ||
| Fricative | /f/ | /s/ | /h/ | [h, ç] | /hʷ/ | [hʷ, çᶣi] | ||
| Trill | /r/ | [ɾ, r, ɽ] | ||||||
| Approximant | /l/ | /j/ | /w/ | [w, ɥ] | ||||
| Labial | Alveolar | Dorsal | Labialized | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | plain | ⟨m⟩ | ⟨n, ny, ngi⟩ | ⟨nw, nu⟩ | |
| geminated | ⟨ng, nyi, nnyi⟩ | ⟨nnw⟩ | |||
| Stop | voiceless | ⟨p⟩ | ⟨t, ti⟩ | ⟨k, ky⟩ | ⟨kw, twi⟩ |
| voiced | ⟨b⟩ | ⟨d⟩ | ⟨g, dw, gy⟩ | ⟨gu, dwi⟩ | |
| Fricative | ⟨f⟩ | ⟨s⟩ | ⟨h, hy⟩ | ⟨hu, hwi⟩ | |
| Trill | ⟨r⟩ | ||||
| Approximant | ⟨l⟩ | ⟨y⟩ | ⟨w, wi⟩ | ||
Vowels
[edit]The Akan dialects have fourteen to fifteen vowels: four to five "tense" vowels (advanced tongue root; +ATR or -RTR), five "lax" vowels (retracted tongue root, +RTR or -ATR), which are not entirely contrastively represented by the seven-vowel orthography, and five nasal vowels, which are not represented at all. All fourteen were distinguished in the Gold Coast alphabet of the colonial era. A tongue-root distinction in orthographic a is only found in some subdialects of Fante, but not in the literary form; in Asante and Akuapem there are harmonic allophones of /a/, but neither is ATR.[clarification needed] The two vowels written e (/e/ and /i̙/) and o (/o/ and /u̙/) are often not distinguished in pronunciation.
| Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -RTR | +RTR | -RTR | +RTR | -RTR | +RTR | |
| Close | /i/ | /i̙/ | /u/ | /u̙/ | ||
| Mid | /e/ | /e̙/ | /o/ | /o̙/ | ||
| Open | /a/ | /a̙/ | ||||
| Orthog. | -RTR | +RTR |
|---|---|---|
| i | /i/ [i] | |
| e | /e/ [e] | /i̙/ [ɪ~e] |
| ɛ | /e̙/ [ɛ] | |
| a | /a/ [æ~ɐ~ə] | /a̙/ [a] |
| ɔ | /o̙/ [ɔ] | |
| o | /o/ [o] | /u̙/ [ʊ~o] |
| u | /u/ [u] |
Tongue root harmony
[edit]Akan vowels engage in a form of vowel harmony with the root of the tongue.[14]
- +RTR vowels followed by the -RTR non-mid vowels /i a u/ become -RTR. This is generally reflected in the orthography: That is, orthographic e ɛ a ɔ o become i e a o u. However, it is no longer reflected in the case of subject and possessive pronouns, giving them a consistent spelling. This rule takes precedence over the next one.
- After the +RTR non-high vowels /e̙ a̙ o̙/, -RTR mid vowels /e o/ become +RTR high vowels /i̙ u̙/. This is not reflected in the orthography, for both sets of vowels are spelled ⟨e o⟩, and in many dialects this rule does not apply, for these vowels have merged.
Tones
[edit]Akan has three phonemic tones, high (/H/), mid (/M/), and low (/L/). Initial syllable may only be high or low.
Tone terracing
[edit]The phonetic pitch of the three tones depends on their environment, often being lowered after other tones, producing a steady decline known as tone terracing.
/H/ tones have the same pitch as a preceding /H/ or /M/ tone within the same tonic phrase, whereas /M/ tones have a lower pitch. That is, the sequences /HH/ and /MH/ have a level pitch, whereas the sequences /HM/ and /MM/ have a falling pitch. /H/ is lowered (downstepped) after a /L/.
/L/ is the default tone, which emerges in situations such as reduplicated prefixes. It is always at bottom of the speaker's pitch range, except in the sequence /HLH/, in which case it is raised in pitch but the final /H/ is still lowered. Thus /HMH/ and /HLH/ are pronounced with distinct but very similar pitches.
After the first "prominent" syllable of a clause, usually the first high tone, there is a downstep. This syllable is usually stressed.[15]
Morphology
[edit]Formation of plural nouns
[edit]Akan historically employed a noun class system similar to that of Bantu languages. Although this system is now largely defunct, remnants of it persist in modern Akan plural formation, particularly through prefixes and suffixes.[16] The current pluralisation system blends fossilised class prefixes with newer morphological strategies, especially for human nouns. Notably, human nouns have preserved more elements of the old system than non-human nouns and can employ multiple plural-marking strategies simultaneously.[17]
Modern Akan employs several strategies for plural formation, representing a transition from its historical purely prefixal system[17] to a mixed system using both prefixes and suffixes. These strategies vary based on semantic categories, with human nouns showing particularly complex patterns.[18]
Prefixal plural formation
[edit]Many Akan nouns form their plurals through the addition or replacement of nasal prefixes (m-, n-), reflecting remnants of the old noun class system.[19]
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| abɔfra "child" | mmɔfra "children" |
| aboa "animal" | mmoa "animals" |
| abusua "family" | mmusua "families" |
| abirekyie "goat" | mmirekyie "goats" |
| adaka "box" | nnaka "boxes" |
| adanko "rabbit" | nnanko "rabbits" |
| aduro "medicine" | nnuro "medicines" |
| kraman "dog" | nkraman "dogs" |
| kanea "light", "lamp" | nkanea "lights", "lamps" |
| safoa "key" | nsafoa "keys" |
In this process, the original class prefix (typically a-) is replaced by a homorganic nasal prefix that assimilates to the initial consonant of the root word. For example, initial ab- becomes mm- and ad- becomes nn- in plural forms.[20]
Suffixal plural formation
[edit]A relatively newer morphological development involves using plural suffixes, primarily for human and agentive nouns. This development is particularly significant as it shows how Akan is evolving from its historical prefix-based system. Human nouns demonstrate the most complex plural marking, often combining both old prefixal and new suffixal strategies — a pattern that highlights their special status in the language's grammatical system.[21]
- With -nom
This suffix is used primarily for kinship and social role terms.
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| agya "father" | agyanom "fathers" |
| nana "grandparent"/"grandchild" | nananom "grandparents"/"grandchildren" |
| nua "sibling" | nuanom "siblings" |
| yere "wife" | yerenom "wives" |
- With -fo
This suffix is used with profession- or agent-based nouns.
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| ɔkyerɛkyerɛni "teacher" | akyerɛkyerɛfo "teachers" |
| odiyifo "prophet" | adiyifo "prophets" |
| ɔsɔfo "priest" | asɔfo "priests" |
| ɔbayifo "witch" | abayifo "witches" |
In some cases, both a prefix and a suffix are used for pluralisation, especially with human nouns (e.g., onua → enuanom). This double marking represents a unique development in Akan's plural system, where human nouns have not only preserved elements of the old class system but have also incorporated new morphological strategies, resulting in a more complex marking pattern than non-human nouns.
Invariant nouns
[edit]Certain Akan nouns remain unchanged in the plural, representing another way the historical noun class system has been simplified. While human nouns have developed complex plural marking strategies, these invariant nouns — including mass nouns and inherently plural items — have moved in the opposite direction by eliminating plural marking entirely.[22]
| Singular / Plural |
|---|
| sika "money" |
| ani "eye"/"eyes" |
| nkyene "salt"/"salts" |
| nsuo "water"/"waters" |
Historical noun classes
[edit]Akan originally featured a more extensive system of noun classes marked by singular/plural prefixes.[23] These may be reconstructed as follows:[24]
| Singular | Plural | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Class | Prefix | Typical domain | Class | Prefix |
| 1 | o-/ɔ- | Humans | 5 | n- |
| 2 | a-/e- | Humans, animals, instruments | 6 | a-/e- |
| 3 | i-/e- | Inanimates | ||
| 4 | ɛ- | |||
Over time, this class system has undergone morphological decay. Modern Akan lacks productive class agreement between nouns and adjectives or verbs, and many prefixes have become fossilised elements perceived as part of the noun stem.[25]
Orthography
[edit]| Uppercase | A | B | D | E | Ɛ | F | G | H | I | K | L | M | N | O | Ɔ | P | R | S | T | U | W | Y |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lowercase | a | b | d | e | ɛ | f | g | h | i | k | l | m | n | o | ɔ | p | r | s | t | u | w | y |
The letters C, J, Q, V, X and Z are also used, but only in loanwords.[citation needed]
Literature
[edit]The Akan languages have a rich literature in proverbs, folktales, and traditional drama, as well as a new literature in dramas, short stories, and novels.[26] This literature began to be documented in written form in the late 1800s.[27] Later, Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia collected a number of proverbs and folktales, including Funeral Dirges of the Akan People (1969), Folk Songs of Ghana (1963), and Akan Poetry (1958). Some of the important authors in the language are A. A. Opoku (dramatist), E. J. Osew (dramatist), K. E. Owusu (novelist), and R. A. Tabi (dramatist and novelist).[26] The Bureau of Ghana Languages has been unable to continue printing novels in the language, and the following are out of print: Obreguo, Okrabiri, Afrakoma, Obeede, Fia Tsatsala, and Ku Di Fo Nanawu.[28]
Education
[edit]Primary
[edit]In 1978 the AOC established a common orthography for all of Akan, which is used as the medium of instruction in primary school.[29][30] The Akan language is recognized for literacy, from at least the lower primary level (primary 1–3).[3]
University
[edit]Akan languages are studied at several major universities in the United States, including Ohio University, Ohio State University, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Harvard University, Boston University, Indiana University, University of Michigan, and The University of Florida. Akan has been a regular African language of study in the annual Summer Cooperative African Languages Institute (SCALI) program. The Akan language is studied in these universities as a bachelor or masters program.[3]
Vocabulary
[edit]Common phrases
[edit]| English | Akan |
|---|---|
| Welcome | Akwaaba |
| Yes | Aane (Asante) Nyew (Fante) Yiw (Akuapem) |
| Okay/Alright | Yoo |
| No/Nope | Oho/Anhã (Fante) Daabi (Asante) |
| Good night | Da yie (Asante) literally "sleep well" |
| I'm going to sleep | Me rekɔ da (Fante) |
| How's it going?/How are you? | Ɛte sɛn? (Asante) could also be used in the non-literal sense as "hello" |
| Thank you | Medaase |
| Please/Excuse me/I beg your pardon | Mepa wo kyɛw |
| Song(s)/Music | Ndwom (Fante) Nnwom (Asante) |
| What is your name? | Wo din de sɛn?/Yɛfrɛ wo sɛn? (Asante) Wo dzin dze dεn? (Fante) |
| My name is.../I'm called... | Me dzin dze.../Wɔfrɛ me... (Fante) |
| How old is he/she? | Woedzi mfe ahen? (Fante) |
| How old are you? | Edzi mfe ahen (Fante) |
| Where is it? | Ɔwɔ hen? |
| I am going/I am taking my leave | Me rekɔ |
| Good | Mbo (Fante) Mmo (Asante) |
| Leave | Jo (Fante) Kɔ (Asante) |
| Well done | Ayɛ adze (Fante) |
| Stop | Gyae |
| Sleep | Da |
| Come | Bra |
| Come here | Bra ha |
| Come and eat | Bɛ didi |
Placenames
[edit]| English | Akan |
|---|---|
| Home | Fie |
| School | Sukuu |
| Church | Asɔre |
| Market | Dwaaso |
| University/Tertiary institution | Sukuupon |
| Hospital | Ayaresabea |
System of given names
[edit]The Akan peoples use a common Akan (Ghana) naming system of giving the first name to a child, based on the day of the week that the child was born. Almost all the tribes and clans in Ghana have a similar custom.
| Day | Male name | Female name | |
|---|---|---|---|
| English | Akan | ||
| Monday | Dwoada | Kwadwo, Kojo | Adwoa |
| Tuesday | Benada | Kwabena, Kobina | Abena |
| Wednesday | Wukuada | Kweku, Kwaku | Akua |
| Thursday | Yawoada | Yaw, Kwaw | Yaa |
| Friday | Fiada | Kofi | Afia/Afua |
| Saturday | Memeneda | Kwame | Ama |
| Sunday | Kwasiada | Akwasi, Kwasi, Kwesi | Asi, Akosua, Esi |
References
[edit]- ^ a b c Akan at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Abron at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Wasa at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
- ^ Bauer, Laurie (2007), The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-3160-5
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Akan (Twi) at Rutgers". www.amesall.rutgers.edu. Retrieved 2019-03-23.
- ^ "Akan Language". Center for International Studies. Ohio University. Retrieved 2023-07-09.
- ^ Schacter 1968, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Arhin, Kwame; Studies, University of Ghana Institute of African (1979). A Profile of Brong Kyempim: Essays on the Archaeology, History, Language and Politics of the Brong Peoples of Ghana. Afram.
- ^ a b The Brong (Bono) dialect of Akan” by Florence Abena Dolphyne University of Ghana, Legon 1979.
- ^ Harries, Patrick; Maxwell, David (2012-07-20). The Spiritual in the Secular: Missionaries and Knowledge about Africa. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4674-3585-7.
- ^ Ager, Simon. "Omniglot". Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ "Akan people /Britannica". 18 July 2024.
- ^ Dolphyne 1986, p. 4.
- ^ a b Dolphyne 1988, pp. 54–6.
- ^ Dolphyne 1986, p. 9–12.
- ^ Obeng 2000, pp. 174–5.
- ^ Schacter 1968, pp. 111–5.
- ^ Osam 1994, pp. 117–8.
- ^ a b Osam 1994, p. 134.
- ^ Osam 1994, p. 140.
- ^ Osam 1994, pp. 134–5.
- ^ Osam 1994, p. 135.
- ^ Osam 1994, pp. 140–2.
- ^ Osam 1994, p. 138.
- ^ Osam 1994, p. 119.
- ^ Osam 1994, p. 120.
- ^ Osam 1994, pp. 134–8.
- ^ a b Nina Pawlak, “Akan Folk Literature and the Beginning of Writing in Twi,” Literatures in African Languages: Theoretical Issues and Sample Surveys by B. W. Andrzejewski and S. Pilaszewicz, 128-157 (Cambridge University Press, 2010).
- ^ J G Christaller, Twi mmebuse̲m, mpensã-ahansĩa mmoaano. A collection of three thousand and six hundred Tshi proverbs, in use among the Negroes of the Gold Coast speaking the Asante and Fante language, collected, together with their variations, and alphabetically arranged, The Basel German Evangelical Missionary Society, 1879.
- ^ "BGL starved of cash, idle for a decade". myjoyonline. August 5, 2011. Archived from the original on 2015-02-13. Retrieved February 12, 2015.
- ^ Akan language.
- ^ Guerini, Federica (2006). Language The Alternation Strategies in Multilingual Settings. Peter Lang. p. 100. ISBN 0-82048-369-9.
Bibliography
[edit]- Dolphyne, Florence Abena (January 1986). "The languages of the Akan peoples". Research Review. 2 (1). University of Ghana. Institute of African Studies: 1–22. ISSN 0855-4412.
- Dolphyne, F. A. (1988). "The Volta–Comoé Languages". In Kropp Dakubu, Mary Esther (ed.). The Languages of Ghana. London: Kegan Paul International for the International African Institute. ISBN 978-0710302106.
- Obeng, Samuel Gyasi (2000). "Vowel harmony and tone in Akan toponyms". Studies in the Linguistic Sciences. 30 (2): 173–183.
- Osam, Emmanuel Kweku Ahen (1994). Aspects of Akan Grammar: A Functional Perspective (PhD thesis). Eugene, OR: University of Oregon.
- Schacter, Paul (1968). A Phonology of Akan: Akuapem, Asante, Fante. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Further reading
[edit]- Cleland, Esi; Gyang, Kofi Oteng; Imbeah, Nana Kodwo (Jojoo); Imbeah, Paa Kwesi (2005). Modern Akan: A concise introduction to the Akuapem, Fanti and Twi language. Kasahorow Language Guides. Accra: Kasahorow. ISBN 978-9988-0-376-7-3.
- Dolphyne, Florence Abena (1988). The Akan (Twi-Fante) Language: Its Sound Systems and Tonal Structure. Accra: Ghana Universities Press. ISBN 9964-3-0159-6.
- Dolphyne, F. A. (1996). A Comprehensive Course in Twi (Asante) for the Non-Twi Learner. Accra: Ghana University Press. ISBN 9964-3-0245-2.
- Nketia, William (2004). Twi für Ghana: Wort für Wort (in German). Bielefeld: Reise Know-How Verlag. ISBN 3-89416-346-1.
- Obeng, Samuel Gyasi (2001). African anthroponymy: An ethnopragmatic and norphophonological study of personal names in Akan and some African societies. LINCOM studies in anthropology. Vol. 08. München: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 3-89586-431-5.
- Redden, J. E.; Owusu, N. (1963). Twi Basic Course. Foreign Service Institute. hdl:2027/mdp.39015005280261. Reprint: Twi basic course. Hippocrene. 1995. ISBN 0-7818-0394-2.
External links
[edit]
- English-Tshi (Asante) : a dictionary = Enyiresi-Twi nsem-asekyere-nhõma (1909), Evangelische Missionsgesellschaft in Basel
- Akan Language Resources
- Journal of West African Languages: Akan
- My First Akan Dictionary Online Akan (Twi, Fanti) Dictionary
- Twi Word of the Day and Articles
- Akan Language Resources
- The Bible in Twi
- The Quran in Twi Language
- Poem translated into Twi
- Watch Twi Music Videos
- Prayer in Asante used by Ghanaians of the Baha'i Faith
- Open Twi Project, a project to bring Asante to software.
- Literature and articles in Ahanta Literature and articles in Ahanta dialect.
| National | |
|---|---|
| Other | |
